Qatar Foundation Annual Research Conference Proceedings Volume 2016 Issue 1

تتفق الدراسات الحديثة المتعلقة باللغة على اختلاف أنساقها المعرفية؛ اللسانية والإثنية والأنثروبولوجية والثقافية، على أن اللغة الإنسانية ليست كائناً فارغاً، وليست أداةً محايدة أو قوالبَ مصمتةً خاليةً من أي مواقف خاصة، بل هي مظهر من مظاهرِ الوعي تَجَسَّدَ لغةً؛ فإذا كانت الوظيفتان الأساسيتان لِلّغة هما التمثيل والتواصل فإن التحيّزات تسري فيهما معاً، فلا يستقيم تمثيل العالم من دون موقفٍ منه، أو وجهة نظر، أو زاوية رؤية، وهذه كلها بوابات مُشرعة للهويّات _ على أساس أن جوهر الهوية وجودُ موقفٍ متميّز من العالم. يُضاف إلى ذلك أن التواصل مع الآخرين سيستعمل أداة التمثيل نفسها: اللغة، وبكلام آخر: “إذا اختُزِل استعمال الناس للغة _بطريقة تحليلية_ في كيفية تشكيل المعنى وتمثيله في صوت، أو في كيفية إيصاله من شخص إلى آخر، أو حتى فيهما معاً، فإن ثمّة شيئاً حيوياً قد استُخلِص: إنهم الناس أنفسهم، إنهم حاضرون دوماً في ما يقولون، وفي الفهم الذي يبنونه على ما يقوله غيرهم. إن هويّتهم تتأصّل في صوتهم، ويكون ذلك ملفوظاً، أو مكتوباً، أو موقّعاً

والأصل الذي بُني عليه هذا التصور الخاص بوعي الجماعة الكامن في اللغة، يقوم على الأساس الفلسفي الذي يقعّد لطبيعة العلاقة بين الدال والمدلول ومحاولة الربط بينهما؛ وهي محاولة « ليست سهلة ولا آلية ولا حتمية، فهي تمر عبر الزمان والمكان الإنسانيين، وهي علاقة تبدأ في عقل الإنسان وقلبه…وتنتهي في عقل الإنسان وقلبه…فثمة مسافة طويلة من الأحلام والأوهام والرغبات والأهواء والأفكار والمصالح تفصل بين الدال والمدلول... ولابد من الاختيار بين عدد لا حصر له من الدال للإخبار عن مدلول مركّب متشابك مع عدد لا حصر له من المدلولات. وعملية الاختيار تعني إبقاء وتأكيد واستبعاد وتهميش، اختيار أو تأكيد لمعنى، واستبعاد أو تهميش لآخر، واختيار أو تأكيد لدال، واستبعاد أو تهميش لآخر، أي أنه لا يوجد تلاقٍ آلي أو تلاحُمٍ ضروري وعضوي بين الدال والمدلول، وإنما هناك حتمية الاختيار أو الاجتهاد الإنساني، في محاولة مزاوجة الدوال بالمدلولات، وهي عملية تتضمّن قدراً من التحيّز لدال على حساب آخر، ولجانب من المدلول على حساب جانب آخر». فإذا كان الدال هو الرمز اللغوي، والمدلول هو المعنى الذي يدل عليه فلابد من الإشارة _ كما هو معروف_ إلى أن هذا المعنى لا يتطابق تمام المطابقة مع الموضوع الواقعي المتعيّن الذي يُفتَرَض أن يمثله، بل هو ينقل وجهة نظر الجماعة التي صكته تجاه هذا الموضوع المتعيّن وموقفها منه، ولذلك فإن ثمة مسافة بين الدال والمدلول هي المسافة التي يقع فيها تحيز الجماعة الثقافية، وليست هذه المسافة من الاتساع بحيث يتم الافتراق بينهما على نحو نهائي، كما أنها ليست من القرب بحيث يتحدان

إن مثل هذه المقدمات التي تؤسس لطبيعة العلاقة بين الدال والمدلول داخل اللغة والفكر تؤدي إلى نتيجة حتمية، وقاعدة أساسية مفادُها أن كل لغة تحمل في طياتها _بوعي متكلميها أو بغير وعيهم_ موقف الجماعة التي صكتها أو الأمة التي تمثلها، أي إنها تحمل هويتهم المميزة التي تعكس موقفهم من العالم. وكل اللغات في هذا الأمر سواء، بائدها وقائمها. وليست العربية بمنأى عن هذه اللغات، مما يعني أنها هي أيضاً تحمل في بنيتها هوية الجماعة التي تعبر عنها؛ أي الهوية العربية-الإسلامية

وتفترض هذه الدراسة أن بنية الهوية العربية الإسلامية وبنية اللغة العربية كلاهما قائم على نظام معياري، مما سينبني عليه أن العربية وحدها قادرة على تمثيل الهوية الإسلامية دون باقي اللغات الإنسانية. فإذا كان الأمر كذلك بدا من الضروري الأخذ بعين الاعتبار هذه النتائج أثناء وضع السياسات اللغوية للمجتمعات والدول العربية لما لذلك من أثر في تهديد هويتها وانتمائها

The mixed methods research study Understanding College Community: Fostering Female Student Success at the Canadian Technical College in Qatar applied the critical feminist paradigm to investigate whether female students who were engaged in the college community, through participation in co-curricular activities, were more likely to achieve academic success and to have a positive perception of their college experience. It also sought to outline possible reasons for disengagement and made recommendations for increasing participation.

The value of the study lay in the context of a country where women are less likely to engage in public activities or participate in stereotypically male activities. It was unique in assessing whether female student engagement and academic and perceived success and barriers to participation, affect female student's ability to gain the transferrable skills necessary for employment (Stasz, Eide & Martorell, 2007). Although female post-secondary enrolment and graduation rates at all levels, including the graduate level, were four times higher than their male counter-parts, the data still indicated that women were five times more likely to unemployed after graduation (Permanent Population Committee, 2012).

The study consisted two phases. The first was a survey of thirty female participants who self-selected from the student body of a mixed-gender satellite campus of a Canadian technical college in Qatar. Data was analyzed to identify demographic trends and correlations among the variables of: Grade Point Average (GPA), ethnicity, student perception, reasons for disengagement and post-graduate plans. Analysis indicated that only 7% of the respondents were Qatari between the ages of 19–25. GPA data was gathered categorically with 77% of the respondents with a mean 3.0–4.0 (A and B letter grades). Rate of co-curricular engagement was assessed based 11 different possible areas or activities of engagement and was based on 1–5 Likert scale with an overall low mean rate of engagement of 2.48. Perception of college experience was assessed similarly based on seven aspects of college experience using a 1–5 Likert scale (college life, students, instructors etc). The findings indicated that student experience was overall very positive. The mean rate of perception was 4.10

Correlational data was analyzed using linear regression to compare three data sets: GPA and mean rate of engagement; GPA and perception of college experience; perception of college experience and mean rate of engagement. A two-tailed test of statistical significance using Pearson Correlation Coefficient indicated that a statistically significant relationship existed between GPA and engagement where the p-value = 0.03. Using the same methods of analysis, data subsequently indicated a statistically significant relationship, p = 0.00024, between GPA and perception of college experience (see Fig. 1).

In addition, data collected in the form of a checklist assessed the reasons for non-engagement. Participants indicated that the top for reasons for not participating in co-curricular activities included: feeling self-conscious, inconvenient times, not knowing what is available or family commitments account for the why are not engaged in

co-curricular activities. Although there was an overall low rate of engagement, nearly 100% of the respondents indicated their desire to participate in these types of activities.

From this cohort, the second phase of the survey consisted of three self-selected participated who volunteered to participate in one-on-one qualitative interviews. Interview questions were developed based on survey responses. Permission to record the interviews was obtained and the interview conditions were as identical as possible. Using qualitative analysis the interviews were transcribed and analyzed using the constant comparison method to identify the following five themes (Lichtman, 2013): development, socio-cultural barriers, value of education, importance of relationships and goal setting.

Interview data indicated that all participants believed that education was valuable because it helped develop the individual and that participating in co-curricular activities helped develop skills that are very valuable for employment. Participants unanimously indicated that women's behavior was influenced by socio-cultural norms whereby, ‘women have to be careful’. They all believed that freedom for women has significantly increased and that it will only continue to improve. These socio-cultural norms and sometimes restrictions were linked to family relationships. Women often indicated the influence or ‘advice’ of their fathers as both supportive and sometimes limiting in terms of their career choice, although all indicated that their families held education and employment in very high esteem. This further supported the survey findings, which indicated that 97% of the respondents intended to pursue further studies and/or seek employment therefore supporting the final concept of goal setting. All interview participants emphasized the importance of setting goals in order to achieve success.

Beyond the scope of this study is the notion that although women in Qatar are highly educated, they face a range of barriers to employment including cultural and social norms that make them less likely to engage in co-curricular activities and in the college community. The potential consequence being that female students were less likely to develop the necessary transferrable skills for success in gaining employment and remaining in the workforce. Interviews requested suggestions for recommendations for increasing engagement included, but were not limited to: linking co-curricular engagement to college courses, creating a new student ‘buddy program’ and instructors as role models by engaging or encouraging engagement in college activities.

References

Lichtman, M. (2013). Making meaning of your data. Qualitative Research in Education. Virginia: Sage Publications.

Permanent Population Committee. (2012). Qatar population status: Two years after launching the population policy. Retrieved from http://www.gsdp.gov.qa/portal/page/portal/ppc/PPC_home/ppc_news/ppc_files_upload/populations_status_2012_en.pdf

The Islamic garden was the earthly image of Paradise. The pre-Islamic Persian gardens derived the garden and tried to recreate the world within an enclosed space. After the conquest of Persia by the Arabs in the 7th century, not only was the Persian garden itself influenced by Islam philosophy, but this erudite form of garden spread throughout the Islamic world. It became the fabled Moorish gardens in Southern Spain the Generalife Alhambra as well as the basis of the Moghul gardens in Kashmir and India. Through these Spanish gardens the impression of the Islamic garden spread to the New World where its influence can still be traced in the Spanish colonial gardens of the South West, the Revival gardens of the early 20th century, especially in California, and even in the spare modern style of the Mexican landscape architect Luis Baragan. The Muslims emphasized the restrictions to dress the garden and keep it-man the steward. The design of the Islamic gardens influenced with specific intents in mind, relating certain ideological principles and objectives rooted in the Islamic faith and the Muslim culture using distinctive design elements. However, Quranic paradise imaginary provides a foundation for understanding Islamic Gardens as clearly shared by established Islamic Gardens such as the gardens of Persia, Mughal India and Moorish Spain. Accordingly, traditional Islamic Garden applied the typical design elements of an Islamic garden for instance the water features, courtyards, trees, flower and calligraphy on walls. The earlier civilization and arid environment are the factors that may have prejudiced the design of the historic Islamic gardens.

Objective

An ideal design of the a contemporary Islamic Garden should be considered others criteria such as value in Islamic teaching. A qualitative research which involves content analysis and descriptive throughout tafseer of Islamic teaching and descriptive analysis through tafsir of Syed Qutb ‘In the Shade of the Quran’ is applied.

Methodology

Islam has continuously revealed the life after death. This tendency can be seen in several Islamic sources such as theosophical manuscripts and fundamental texts. Those occasionally mentioned in the holy Quran about heaven and hell in some of the verses. Surah Al-Waqiah has presented beautiful descriptions of paradise among other metaphorical verses, in which we can find out the basic elements of landscape and garden design. At the beginning, this paper deals with the history of main elements of Islamic garden such as water in early culture and mythos. Many verses in Holy Quran invite the human to think about the amazing order of this world and creation of skies, earth, mounts, and seas. In Islamic insight, the world phenomena are assumed as signs of the God and one of the ways to achieve unity and recognition of God for thoughtful humans is to journey in horizons and rational wayfaring in divine signs. Thereupon, we also review the Islamic principle of paradise to realize the main concept and design features of it mentioned in Quran.

Results

A framework of a contemporary Islamic garden throughout Islamic values is formulated.

Conclusion

The outcome of this study determination contributes to the body of knowledge by proposing a new framework of Islamic Garden that suitable to the Malaysia context. Furthermore in the Surah Al-Waqiah, a paradisiacal garden is described as an unlimited paradise and secures space, with diverse trees planted in specific locations, accessed to through eight gates. From these finding, it is expected that at the end of study a framework of Islamic Garden principles based on applying the ideological principle in Islamic faith and Quranic paradise imagery will be formulated. The outcome will contribute to the body of knowledge by proposing a new framework of Islamic Garden that suitable to the Malaysia context. As a conclusion, an Islamic garden should be design based on district design elements, its contextual, local culture and ideological principles rooted in Islamic faith to enhance garden space for recreational and restoration function. The general Islamic garden principles and Quranic paradise imagery derived from verse of Quran can help people to establish systems, regulations, attitudes and views in order to understand and control their worldly life in accordance with their needs, region and time. Moreover, the responsive authority has to come out with a specific guideline that can be applied in improving our Islamic garden design. The ideas of implementing the Islamic garden into the garden in Malaysia is perceived as relevant and encourage effort to support the governance approach in creating an Islamic environment. This study also indicates that as Muslim landscape architects have always tried to develop the landscape architecture and design principles for their garden design from the verses of the holy Quran.

مقاربة جديدة لتعليم اللغة العربية

تعليم النحو نموذجا

إعداد:د منيرة القنوني

أستاذ مساعد جامعة قطر

تمهيد

يعاني الكثير من التلاميذ والطلبة صعوبات كبيرة في مستوى تعلّم واكتساب اللغة العربية ، ونعتقد أن هذا المشكل له الكثير من الأسباب لكن أسبابه الرئيسية تعليمية بحتة ترتبط في اعتقادنا بضعف برامج تعليم اللغة العربية في الوطن العربي عامة.

علوم اللسان قريبة من العلوم الطبيعيّة إلا أنها تختلف عنها اختلافا جوهريا ، علوم الطبيعة نشاط حضاري يسعى لبناء تصور عن حقيقة الكون المحيط بنا ، علم اللغة نشاط حضاري ولكنه يعكس تأويلنا الخاص لماهية الخارج ، يمس أداتنا الخاصة التي نستعملها لإعادة بناء الخارج فهما وتأويلا فتصورا

لذلك تعلم اللغة يختلف عن تعلم بقية العلوم ، فالمتعلم لا يتعلم مادة علمية وإنما يربي في ذاته أداة لغوية تكون وسيلته لبناء تأويله الخاص عن العالم الذي يحيط به ، هذا العمل يطرح إشكالية الحدود بين العلمي والتعلّمي في صناعة نحو تعليمي ناجع

صعوبات تعليم النحو

النفور وعدم الدافعية للتعلم: يعد النحو العربي التعليمي في أغلب مراحل تعليمه الابتدائي والإعدادي والثانوي وخاصة الجامعي للمختصين باللغة العربية وغيرهم من أكثر المقررات التي ينفر منها المتعلم ، ويستصعبها ، ولا يقبل عليها باهتمام ، ولا يتميز فيها. هذا المشكل ليس مقصورا على النحو العربي بل الكثير من اللغات الأخرى يعاني معلّموها من نفور المتعلمين من الإقبال والرغبة في تعلم أنحائها

مشكل الأهداف والمخرجات: إن اهم مشكل يواجه هذا النحو التعليمي هو مشكل الأهداف والمخرجات ، إذ لا يمكن بناء تعليم سليم إلا إذا كانت أهدافه ومخرجاته محددة وواضحة

ويعاني النحو التعليمي العربي من عدم وضوح أهدافه التعليمية ومخرجاته: لماذا نعلم النحو ؟؟؟ الحقيقة بعد تجربة في تعليم النحو لأكثر من 20 سنة لا أجد إجابة واضحة عن هذا السؤال

ونفترض إجابة عنه التصنيف التالي:

الملاحظ في أغلب برامج النحو التعليمي العربي أنها لا تميز بين الهدفين: تعليم النحو لتعلّم اللغة وتعليم نماذج نحوية وصفية تفسيرية للغة ، هذا الخلط أثر على مضامين النحو التعليمي ، في بناء المادة التعليمية ، وفي بناء التدريبات والتمارين وكذلك في الاختبارات وطرق التقييم

جعل هذا الخلط نجاعة النحو التعليمي ضعيفة جدا خاصة إذا كان الهدف تخريج طالب قادر على استعمال تراكيب اللغة العربية استعمالا تلقائيا سليما ، فلم توجه مخرجات تعليم النحو نحو هذا الهدف مباشرة

تعليم النحو لتعليم اللغة: عرفان المتعلـّم بمبادئ النحو سابق لتلقـّيه علم المعلـّم بعلم النحو ، إذ يمتلك المتعلم فطريا ملكة لغويّة في صورة برمجة طبيعية أو تجهيز طبيعي لاكتساب برامج لغوية ، وهي ما يشبه البرنامج المركزي في الحاسوب ونلاحظ في أغلب مدارسنا الاعتماد المطلق على تعليم العلم الواصف للغه أي النحو القواعدي للتلميذ في مختلف مراحل تعليمه من غير الانتباه إلى أنه يمتلك فعلا نحوا ضمنيا _ يقول جيفري بول متحدثا عن النحو القواعدي « كل ما تفعله في المدرسة هو أنك تعطي أسماء لأشياء تعرفها من قبل إننا نحاول أن نطور نظرية حول ما هو موجود فعلا في رأسك «

إنّ النظام النحوي المكتسب تلقائيا عند الطالب هو نفسه النظام الذي نروم إكسابه إياه بالتعليم الفرق بينهما يكمن في

ــ درجة أعلى من الكفاءة في استعمال النظام التركيبي للغة العربية في مستويات لا تطورها اللهجة هي مستويات الكتابة والقراءة خاصة وكذلك الاستعمال الشفوي الفصيح الذي لا يختلف في تراكيبه عن الاستعمال العامي

ـــ لا بد أن يكون الطالب على وعي تام بأن الأبنية الدلالية اللامحدودة تحكمها قوالب نحوية محدودة جدا وأن التعدد الدلالي يعود إلى توحد تركيبي نحوي

وضروري أن يكون أحد أهم مخرجات تعليم النحو هوالتركيز على إكساب الطالب هذه الأبنية النحوية المحدودة وجعله يتعرف عليها ويكتسبها فهما وتحليلا وتركيبا وأن يكون استعماله لها استعمالا مباشرا تلقائيا

شروط بناء برنامج تعليمي نحوي ناجح تعليم النظام

يرتكز تعليم النحو في مدارسنا عامة على حفظ القواعد مثل هذا النموذج:

ماهي الفائدة التي يمكن أن يجنيها الطالب بحفظ مثل هذه القواعد بهذا الشكل غير الوظيفي ؟

صعوبات تعليم النحو العربي

ـــ 1ــ مشكل اختيار النموذج الوصفي

تتعدد النماذج الوصفية لنحو اللغة العربية ولكن المشكل في اعتماد الكثير من صناع الكتب المدرسية النحوية على المادة المعرفية الموجودة في كتب التراث دون تغيير أو توظيف

فمثلا إن عدت إلى أي كتاب نحوي مدرسي عربي ستجد هذه التعريفات

ـــ تعريف الاسم مادل على معنى في نفسه غير مقترن بزمان

ـــ تعريف الاسم المعرب ما اختلف آخره لاختلاف العامل الداخل عليه...

هي نفس التعريفات التي تجدها عند سيبويه والمبرد وابن السراج وغيرهم...

ـ فتكون المادة جافة ، باهتة ، غير قابلة للتوظيف والتطبيق و إذا قسنا درجة تعلم طلبتنا نلاحظ أن قصى درجات اكتسابهم ــ حتى المتميزين منهم ــ هو القدرة على فهم القواعد والتعرف على استعمالاتها داخل سياقات مخصوصة ، يعني المخرج الوحيد الذي ستحققه هذه الكتب والمقررات هو جعل الطالب قادرا على وصف الظواهر النحوية في استعمالات خاصة

كيف يمكن ،انطلاقا من الانتاج العلمي الغزيرفي مجال البحث اللغوي بناء برامج تعليمية ذات جودة عالية ، نقدم في بقية العرض نموذجا إجرائيا يتناول مقاربة لدرس نحوي وظيفي نحاول أن نفصل فيه بين النظام النحوي للغة والقواعد اللغوية الناظمة لمنوال نحوي تفسيري محدد ، نحاول أن نبين حدود العلم وكيف يمكن توظيفه لصناعة تعليم ناجع

النظام النحوي

تعليم النظام النحوي

الهدف التعليمي: الخروج من الاستعمال العفويّ للتراكيب اللغوية إلى الاستعمال الواعي المتبصّر ونحتاج إلى بناء نظام نحوي تعليمي واصف للغة العربية

نظام نحوي تعليمي واصف للغة العربية

نحاول أن نقدم منوالا وصفيا يقوم على ت أبنية محدودة جدا وبعض القواعد التي تمكن من وصف وتفسير التراكيب في اللغة العربية ، ليس المطلوب منا مقاطعة النحو القديم فلا بد أن نعترف أن النحو القديم أفضل المنوالات وصفا للغة العربية خاصة مع تعثر الدراسات اللسانية العربية الحديثة ، وأقوى ما في النحو القديم حسب اعتقادنا هي الفرضيات التي كونها الحدس العلمي القوي جدا عند النحاة القدامى وقد كان نتيجة ممارسة عميقة للغة وخاصة اللغة في مستوى الاستعمال

أحتاج المنوال الوصفي لأفهم النظام إذا استطعت فهم النظام تمكنت من بناء نظام تعليمي ناجع ، ليس هدفنا من تقديم هذا النموذج مجرد العرض وإنما بيان كيف يمكننا الاشتغال على مبدإ من المبادئ النظامية للنحو العربي ، ثم كيف نخرجه من مجاله العلمي البحثي البحت لأستثماره في بناء تعليم نحوي يساعد على إكساب الطالب مهارة في استعمال تراكيب اللغة العربية

ـــ ولن نقدم نسقا كاملا ــ بل سنكتفي بتقديم مبدأ واحد لعلنا إن نجحنا في تمثله انتقلنا إلى مرحلة بناء نموذج تفسيري علمي كامل يساعد على بناء نموذج تعليمي واضح المخرجات والأهداف

مبدأ ثنائية التركيب في اللغة العربية

يقول سيبويه « لا تكون ثلاثة أشياء اسما واحدا « تحديد حدسي لمبدإ الثنائية في الأبنية الإعرابية على غاية من الأهمية ، عالج به الكثير من الابنية مثل (اسم العدد المركب من 11/19 وفسر البناء في نحو خمسَ عشرةَ درهما ، كذلك نصب الاسم ومنعه من التنوين بعد لا النافية للجنس في نحو لا رجلَ ظريفٌ في البيت وغيرها

جميع الأبنية في العربية هي مركبات ثنائيّة كل مركب يقوم على نواة عاملة هي الرأس ويطلب معمولا ليخصصه وقد يطلب معمولا ثانيا ولكن لا يعمل في الثاني الا بعد تمام عمله في الأول ، أي يتحول العامل الرأس مع معموله الأول إلى عامل رأس يعمل في المعمول الثاني هذا المبدأ الثنائية الناتجة عن رأس عامل ومعمول يخصصه موصوفة بدقة في النماذج الأخيرة لتشومسكي خاصة في نظرية سَ المسقطة X،

ـــــ مبدأ الثنائية: مبني / مبني عليه

ــــــ مبدأ رأسية العامل

لعل هذا المبدأ من المبادئ العامة المتحكمة في النحو ، قد تكون مختزنة في ذهن متكلمي اللغة و قد يمثل اختزان هذه المبادئ جزءا من القدرات الفطرية للمتكلمين واستعداداتهم عامة لاكتساب اللغة

سنحاول أن نفسر هذا المبدأ في اللوحات التالية أولا سنتتبع تفسيره للتركيب الجملي ثم تفسيره لبقية المركبات الاسمية والحرفية ـــــــ وأنوه أنه رغم أهمية هذا المبدأ وجدته وطرافته وقوته التفسيرية ـفإنه ليس هدفنا الرئيسي في مثل هذه المداخلة عرض نموذج تفسيري للتركيب النحوي في اللغة العربية وإنما هدفنا الأساسي بيان كيف يمكنني انطلاقا من نموذج تفسيري نظري صناعة تعليم مهاري تطبيقي لنتبين كيف يجب أن ينعكس العلم في التعليم وخاصة ماهي الحدود الفاصلة بينهما

هذه المبادئ الأولية ليست مادة تعليمية ، فلا جدوى من تعليمها للمتعلم ، ولكنها ضرورية جدا جدا لمعرفة وتكوين المعلم حتى يفهم طبيعة المتعلم ، طرق اكتسابه للغة ، نظامه اللغوي كل هذا سيساعده في بناء برامج ناجعة قادرة على تشغيل الجهاز النحوي للمتعلم وتحفيزه

مثال في برامجنا التعليمية لن نجد درس العامل والمعمول ، أو المبادئ الكبرى الناظمة للنحو ، وإنما سنجد دروسا من نوع المركب بالإضافة ، او المركب النعت ، وغيرها

ضروري جدا وهو يعلم التلميذ في الدرس أن يعي المعلم أنه يتناول جزءا من نظام ، وأن يعرف في أي جزء يتحرك و ضروري جدا أن يعي الوسيط بين المعرفة العالمة والمعرفة المدرسية ، الذي ينقل المعرفة من الكتب العلمية ليصنع الكتب المدرسية ، المبادئ الكبرى للنحو لينشئ أهدافا إجرائية تعليمية تقترب من طبيعة المتعلم ، إن وعي المعلـّم بالنحو وعيا علميّا، يجعله متمكـّنا في صناعة التعليم ومن وضع الخطط الموصلة إلى مجاوزة الصعوبات عند المتعلـّم

1. Introduction

Punctuation can be defined as the use of spacing and conventional signs to help the understanding of the handwritten and printed texts. Punctuation marks are used to create sense, clarity and stress in sentences and they are also used to structure and organize the text.

The punctuation rules vary with language and register. Some punctuation aspects of are stylistic choices. For language such Arabic, the punctuation marks are relatively a modern innovation since Arabic did not use punctuation and therefore the punctuation rules in Arabic are not always consistently used. From a Natural Language Processing (NLP) perspective, punctuation marks can be useful in the automatic sentence Segmentation tasks, since the sentences boundaries and phrase boundaries can be estimated according to punctuation marks. Moreover and as shown by a number of studies, the absence of punctuation could be confusing both for humans and computers.

Furthermore, many NLP systems trained on well formatted text often have problems when dealing with unstructured texts. In order to build robust automatic punctuation systems, large scale manually punctuated corpora are usually needed. In this abstract, we present our effort to build a large scale error corrected punctuated corpus for Arabic. We present our special punctuation annotation guidelines designed to improve the inter-annotator agreement. Our guidelines were used by trained annotators and a regular inter-annotator agreement were measured to ensure the annotation quality.

2. Corpus Description:

In this work, we describe the 2M words corpus developed for the Qatar Arabic Language Bank (QALB) project a large-scale error annotation effort that aims to create a manually corrected corpus of errors including punctuation errors for a variety of Arabic texts (Zaghouani et al., 2014; Zaghouani et al., 2015). The goal of the annotation in this project is twofold: first, to correct the existing punctuation found in text, than to add the missing necessary punctuation when needed. The comments are selected from the available comments related to news stories. The native student essays data is 150k words extracted from the Arabic Learners Corpus (ALC). The non-native student essays data, is 150k words corpus selected the Arabic Learners Written Corpus (ALWC). The data is categorized by the student level (beginner, intermediate, advanced), learner type (L2 vs. heritage), and essay type (description, narration, instruction).

Finally, the machine translation output data is collected from 100k words of English news article taken from the collaborative journalism Wikinews website. The corpus includes 520 articles with an average of 192 words per article. The original English files were in HTML format and were exported to a UTF-8 plain Text standard format so it can be used later on in the annotation tool. Afterwards, the corpus collected was automatically translated from English to Arabic using the Google Translate API service.

3. Punctuation Annotation Guidelines

Our punctuation guidelines focus on the types of punctuation errors that are targeted and describe the process of how to correct them and also when to add the missing punctuation marks. Many annotated examples are provided in the guidelines to illustrate the various annotation rules and exceptions. Since the Arabic punctuation rules are not always clearly defined, we adopted an iterative approach for developing the guidelines, which includes multiple revisions and updates needed to different rounds of updating and annotation to reach a consistent set of directions.

In order to help our annotators with some complex punctuation rules, we wrote a summary of the most common punctuation marks rules in Arabic as an appendix to the guidelines.

The rules of punctuation vary with language and register. Moreover, aspects of punctuation use vary from author to author, and can be considered a stylistic choice.

While punctuation in the English or French language is guided by a series of grammar-related rules, in other languages such as Arabic, punctuation is a recent innovation as pre-modern Arabic did not use punctuation.

According to Awad (2013), there is an inconsistency in the punctuation rules and usage in Arabic, and omitting the punctuation marks is a very frequent error. We use the Arabic standard general punctuation rules commonly used today and described in Awad (2013).

Punctuation errors are especially present in student essays and online news comments. This is mainly due to the fact that some punctuation mark rules are not clearly defined in Arabic writing references. We created a set of simple rules for correcting punctuation and adding missing ones.

4. Annotation Procedure

The lead annotator is also the annotation work-flow manager of this project. He frequently evaluate the quality of the annotation, monitor and report on the annotation progress.

A clearly defined protocol is set, including a routine for the annotation job assignment and the inter-annotator agreement evaluation. The lead annotators is also responsible of the corpus selection and normalization process beside the annotation of the gold standard to be used to compute the Inter-Annotator Agreement (IAA) portion of the corpus.

The annotators in this project are five university graduates with good Arabic language background. To ensure the annotation quality, an extensive training phase for each annotator was conducted. Afterwards, the annotator's performance is closely monitored during the initial period, before allowing the annotator to join the official annotation production phase. Moreover, a dedicated on-line discussion group is frequently used by the annotation team to keep track of the punctuation questions and issues raised during the annotation process, this mechanism, proved to help the annotators and the lead annotator to have a better communication.

This framework includes two major components:

 1. The annotation management interface which is used to assist the lead annotator in the general work-flow process, it allows the user to upload, assign, monitor, evaluate and export annotation tasks.

 2. The annotation interface is the actual annotation tool, which allows the annotators to do the manual correction of the Arabic text and add the missing punctuation or correct the existing ones.

All the annotation history is recorded in a database and can be exported to an XML export file to keep a trace of the entire correction actions for a given file.

5. Evaluation

To evaluate the punctuation annotation quality, we measure the inter-annotator agreement (IAA) on randomly selected files to ensure that the annotators consistently following the annotation guidelines. A high annotation agreement is a good indicator of the data quality. The IAA is measured over all pairs of annotations to compute the AWER (Average Word Error Rate). In this evaluation, the WER measures the punctuation error against all punctuation marks in the text. The average IAA results obtained was 89.84% (WER) computed over 10 files from each corpus (4,116 words total) annotated by at least three different annotators. Overall, the results obtained showed that the annotators are consistently following the punctuation guidelines.

6. Conclusions

We presented our method to create an Arabic manually punctuated corpus, including the writing of the guidelines as well as the annotation procedure and the quality control procedure used to verify the annotation quality. We showed that there is a high variety in the use of punctuation in Arabic texts and despite the existence of punctuation rules, the use of punctuation in Arabic is highly individual and it depends on the style of the author who defines his own use of punctuation.

7. References

Awad, D. (2013). La ponctuation arabe: histoire et règles.

Zaghouani, W., Mohit, B., Habash, N., Obeid, O., Tomeh, N., Rozovskaya, A., Farra, N., Alkuhlani, S., and Oflazer, K. (2014). Large scale arabic error annotation: Guidelines and framework. In International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC 2014).

Zaghouani, W., Habash, N., Bouamor, H., Rozovskaya, A., Mohit, B., Heider, A., and Oflazer, K. (2015). Correction annotation for non-native arabic texts: Guidelines and corpus. Proceedings of The 9th Linguistic Annotation Workshop, pages 129–139.

This is a story of the National Flag of the State of Qatar. This Flag is white pierced with nine serrated points penetrating to the light Maroon portion. The origin of the colour of this Flag dates back to the Bronze Age of 3rd millennium BC. Archeologists found that the prehistoric settlers established a factory on Jezirat bin Ghannam (an island at the Bay of Al Khor) to produce purple red dyes from species of sea snails. This dye was imported by other countries to use for ceremonial and ritual garments for the royals including emperors, kings and high ranking citizens. The Maroon colour comes from the dye drying under the hot desert sun. Before 1851, each Qatari tribe had its own Flag. They used to fly them during fights, festivals and celebrations. In 1851, in an effort to unite all Qatari tribes under one banner, Sheikh Jasim bin Thani, the founder of Modern Qatar, adopted a single Flag to face Amir Faisal bin Turki, who arrived at Mesaimeer, a place situated to the west of Doha. Since then Qatar had been using this purple-red Flag. In 1916 the Anglo-Qatari Protection Treaty was concluded bringing Qatar under British Trucial system of administration, as 9th Member. Other members of the Trucial administration (now the United Arab Emirates), were Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Sharjah, Ras al-Khaimah, Ajman, Umm al-Qawain, Fujairah and later Bahrain. In line with the terms of the Treaty of 1916, the British Admiralty prescribed a distinctive Flag for Qatar in April 1932. This Flag was very similar to the Flag of Bahrain except the portion “which is red in the Bahrain Flag is more nearly Violet [Purple] in the case of Qatar.” While Bahrain's Flag had eight zigzag points, the Qatari Flag had nine. This prescribed purple colour Flag was not acceptable to Sheikh Abdullah bin Jasim Al Thani, Ruler of Qatar (1913–1949). He adopted a Crimson Flag with a serrated white strip near the staff pierced with Crimson diamonds. The word “Qatar” in Arabic characters inscribed in white on Crimson. Sheikh Abdullah adopted this Crimson colour to avoid confusion with Bahrain's red Flag. The small crimson diamonds between each zigzag point was added to distinguish the strips. This Flag also possessed nine points and the total number of diamonds was also nine. Crimson or Maroon represents coagulated blood colour. Red turns into Crimson or Maroon when it becomes dry. In 1949, Sheikh Ali bin Abdullah Al Thani, Ruler of Qatar (1949–1960), changed the colour of the Flag and adopted Maroon. This colour was obtained by exposing the natural red dye. In 1960, the country's name and the diamonds were removed from the Flag; but the colour and the serration remained the same. From 1960 to December 2012, Qatar flew this Maroon Flag. The Maroon portion of the Flag carries the past history, culture and heritage of Qatar. For the same reasons as before, the Maroon colour was used to differentiate it from the Flag of Bahrain and the nine points remained. On the occasion of the celebration of Qatar's sixth National Day, 18th December 2012, His Highness Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani, Amir of the State of Qatar (June 1995–June 2013), now the Father Amir, changed the colour of the Flag to the 1851 light Maroon instead of dark to maintain the continuation of the old heritage of Qatar. In this way, through history, Qatar now has a new National Flag. Its meaning is from ancient natural resources from Qatar and is directly linked to the Qatari Royal Family.

This paper will analyze the contributions of transnational universities in Gulf to make Gulf cities transnational meeting places between national and professional cultures for creating innovative, knowledge-based economies and for building strategic knowledge relations with existing Western partners and new emerging market partners (the case of China).

The paper will have special emphasis on Doha and compare with other Gulf cities with transnational university environments as Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Sharjah and Kuwait City. The paper makes policy recommendations for Doha on maximizing the quality and intensity of transnational university relations. These recommendations will focus on developing transnational triple-helix innovation systems linking academia, business and government in Doha (elsewhere in the Gulf) as well as strategic knowledge relations for politics and diplomacy with both traditional partners in the West and new partners in emerging markets especially in Asia. These two agendas are mutually reinforcing as thriving global centers of triple helix innovation between academia, business and government stand the best chances of building strategic knowledge relations for politics and diplomacy. This research builds on field work in Lebanon, Egypt, UAE and Kuwait and 100+ interviews there and wider.

Qatar and other Gulf states are seeking to transform fossil fuel-based economies to innovative, knowledge-based economies and have large youth population. Both aspects demand quality and innovative higher education and expanded capacity. Gulf states have initially turned to privatization and internationalization attracting or establishing transnational universities (foreign branch campuses, universities offering double or foreign degrees, or universities with foreign accreditations or management partnerships). Qatar is now taking the next step of strengthening and internationalizing its national university. Both private and public transnational academic institutions connect a range of academic, government, business and civil society actors in Qatar and other Gulf societies with overseas societies.

Qatar also exists in a region with significant risks and pressures on the state as the other Gulf states. Qatar is therefore dependent on strategic relationships with the USA, European states, regional states and further. It is crucial for Qatar that there exist deep and longstanding knowledge relations between Qatari and foreign decision-makers in politics, (energy) business, military, academia, etc, with a deep knowledge of issues and other actors. There exists today such strong knowledge relations between especially Qatar, the Gulf states and the USA based on decades of close collaboration, educational and research collaboration, etc. However, Qatar lives in a changing world of globalization and rising new centers of power, most notably China. Qatar and China have not had the opportunity to build such a strategic knowledge relationship. It is imperative for Qatar going forward to do so.

Research on the historical transnational universities in the Middle East, the American University of Beirut, the Université Saint-Joseph de Beyrouth and the American University in Cairo, shows that these universities are exceptionally influential transnational actors moving ideas, information, talent and financial resources of high quality and intensity (Bertelsen 2012b). The Beirut universities transformed their urban environment making Beirut into an intellectual regional hub. The historical transnational universities are particularly interesting for their ability to build strong and long-lasting knowledge connections with high-ranking academia, business and government in especially the USA and France.

The basis of this paper is how public and private transnational universities in Qatar and the Gulf can create transnational relations with academia, government, business and civil society in both the USA and Europe – but also China as a case of emerging market science, technology and innovation systems. The purpose of these strong transnational knowledge relations is building transnational triple helix innovation systems in Doha and other Gulf cities both with connections to existing Western strategic partners and centers of science, technology and innovation and future partners.

The paper analyzes how universities in Doha and other Gulf societies contribute to create transnational cities with relations to academia, government, business and civil society in both the USA, Europe and China and thus contribute significantly to creating innovative, knowledge-based urban and national economies and strategic knowledge relationships.

The research finding and policy implications is that the transnational knowledge relations of Doha (and other Gulf university cities) are central for Qatar (and other Gulf states) in both strategic economic and political aspects: For economic policy strategy, these relations are central for building human capital with global skills and networks for building transnational triple helix innovation systems in Doha and wider, which can transform Qatar and other Gulf states into more knowledge-based economies. Here it is important both to strengthen existing knowledge relations to current US and European centers of science, technology and innovation.

For political and diplomatic strategy, these transnational knowledge relations are equally important. It is crucial for Qatar and the other Gulf states to maintain dense networks of Qatari and foreign current and future decision-makers in politics, business, academia, military, etc, who have a deep understanding of Qatari and Gulf affairs seen from within the Gulf and from outside. Such relations take decades to build up and are long-term investments. Again it is crucial to maintain the strategic knowledge relations between Qatar and its Western partners. However, Qatar lives in a rapidly changing world of globalization and new centers of power in Asia. Qatar and the other Gulf states have not cultivated the long-term and deep knowledge relations with especially China as with the West. Equally China lacks networks, knowledge and understanding of Qatar. Therefore it is of strategic importance that public and private universities in Qatar and Doha as a global city of knowledge build transnational knowledge relations with academia, business and government in China. (It is also important with other Asian emerging markets as India, South Korea, etc. China is selected here as the most important case).

- الملخلص بالعربية:

كثيرة هي الدراسات النقدية والبحوث الأكاديمية التي اشتغلت بقراءة وتحليل ومقاربة ما اصطلح على تسميته بالشعر الحديث، ولابد من الإشارة إلى أن الشعر الحديث هو كل نص شعري كتب برؤية جديدة معتمداً على تقنية فنية متفردة لم يسبق إليها من قبل؛ أي لم تكن مألوفة في الأوساط الشعرية، أو تم التميز والفرادة من خلالها نتيجة استخدامها بطريقة مختلفة، فالقصيدة الحديثة هي قصيدة ابتدعت بعيداً عن التقليد والاقتداء بالنمط الجاهز والاتباع لقانون الجماعة السائد، وكان ذلك الابتداع في كافة الأصعدة والمستويات، الدلالية والصوتية واللغوية، فجاءت نصاً ذو تشكيلات متناسبة والتجربة الشعرية لمبدعها، إلا أن المتمعن في مدونة الشعر الحديث، يجد بروز مسألة مهمة شغلت التفكير النقدي، هي مفهوم الشعرية poetics، وأستطيع القول أنها من المفاهيم الحديثة القديمة؛ حيث عرف منذ أرسطو، غير أننا في الوقت الراهن لم نعد نتحدث عن شعرية بل شعريات حديثة، ولم يعد حديثنا عن الشعرية قصراً على الحقل الشعري، أو حتى الأدبي، بل تجاوز هذا المفهوم حدود الأدب ليمتد إلى الفنون والمجالات الأخرى، فنجد من النقاد من يتحدث عن شعرية السرد، وشعرية الفنون الشكيلة، وغيرها.

وانطلاقاً مما سبق يرتكز اهتمام هذا البحث على موضوع مهم في مجال نظرية الأدب، وفي ميدان الشعرية تحديداً، هو موضوع الشعرية الحداثية؛ فقد ارتبط مفهوم الشعرية بتطور مفاهيم الحداثة وتعاقب حركات التجديد المختلفة، وأما قضية الحداثة فقد عدت من المسائل المعقدة التي اهتم بها النقاد لسنوات سواء على المستوى الغربي أم العربي، وتم طرحها على مستويات مختلفة فلسفية وأدبية وسياسية وفكرية وثقافية، ومما زاد الإشكال في هذا الموضوع هو عدم وجود تعريف دقيق لماهية الحداثة وجوهرها، فلكل مبدع أو ناقد أو مفكر حداثته الخاصة ورؤيته الفلسفية لما حوله، حيث أن لكل حركة حداثية جملة من التصورات والرؤى تستند عليها في خلق شعريتها المميزة، وبهذا لن يكون الحديث عن شعرية واحدة بل شعريات وفقاً لتعدد الحداثات، ولا أدل على تلك الإشكالية من أن كل شاعر حداثي قد انطلق في خلق عالمه الشعري الخاص من عالم المجهول، فأصبح العالم من حوله خاضعا لعلل الذات، ما جعل المتلقي بعد ذلك يقف في صدمة أمام ذلك الخطاب الشعري في محاولة فك شفراته، ومن هنا جاء هذا البحث محاولاً دراسة الشعر الحداثي في منطقة الخليج الذي تمثل من وجهة نظري في نموذجين أساسيين عرفهما الشعر العربي، يتشكل الأول فيما اصطلح على تسميته بالشعر الحر، والنموذج التحديثي الآخر في مسار شعرنا العربي، الذي أحدث –وما زال- ضجة كبيرة، وصخب غير مسبق، هو ما اصطلح على تسميته بــــقصيدة النثر، فوقفت على تجارب كثيرة لشعراء معاصرين في هذه المنطقة ممن استطاعوا أن يتمثلوا هذا التيار وفلسفاته المختلفة، ساعية بذلك إلى محاولة توضيح أبرز تجليات الشعرية الحداثية في المدونة الشعرية في منطقة الخليج.

- الملخص بالإنجليزية:

Many studies devoted to analyzing modern poetry which refers to poetical texts that is unique in its vision and techniques. The modern poem goes beyond imitating or repeating other texts. It is unique in its semantic, linguistic and phonological levels. The modern poetry is highly interested in poetics which is an ancient still modern concept. However, we nowadays talk about multiplicity of poetics. Poetics now is a field that is shared with other disciplines such as narration and fine arts.

Based on what has mentioned previously, this research focuses on the modern poetics and its relations with the concept of modernity. Modernity is a complex issue. It is quite difficult to give a widely accepted notion for it as every critic or intellectual has his (her) own definition. This diversity is manifested in the different approached to poetry. This research attempts at studying modern poetry in the Gulf area. I will study the free verse poetry and the prose poems. A selected corpus from around the Gulf will be analyzed.

In recent years, vision based solutions have shown improvement in performance for scenes containing single or few persons for the tasks of person detection, tracking, and action recognition. Dense crowd analysis is the next step which actually helps to solve more useful real word problems. It is crucial for surveillance, space and infrastructure management of large events such as political, religious, social, and sports gatherings.

Visual analysis of a dense crowd is significantly difficult as compare to a single or few person analyses due to a set of challenges including severe occlusion, low resolution, and perspective distortion. Such environment also offers a set of special constraints such as person visibility is strongly dependent on the position of other persons or a persons actions can also be inferred from the actions of the surrounding people.

Person pose detection in densely crowded scenes is very challenging task but also very useful for the higher level tasks like person tracking, action recognition and activity classification etc. Many automatic person pose detection methods are proposed in literature but for only single or few persons. These algorithms expect visibility of full body and therefore try to fit in all body parts. The body parts which are occluded are also forced to fit in resulting in incorrect detection (Fig. 1). We present a pose detection method for partially occluded persons using the extra constraints available in the dense crowd videos. We present our results on S-Hock spectator crowd dataset. It consists 15 videos each contains 929 frames recorded by five different cameras in four ice hockey matches. The annotations (face and head boundaries) for each person in each frame are also available.

In S-Hock dataset all videos were recorded using fixed cameras. Which means we can easily calculate the expected person height and width in pixels using the intrinsic and extrinsic parameters of the camera. We use state of the art face detector to get an initial bounding box around the face of each person. We use the expected person height and width along with person's face bounding box to get initial person boundary. In a crowded environment, a person is usually occluded by other persons therefore initial boundaries have significant overlap with other persons boundaries and we use this fact to correct the initial boundary of each person.

Figure 1 Results of the current state of the art human pose detection algorithm of Yong and Ramanan 2013 articulated on spectator crowd dataset Conigliaro 2015 shock. Only head (green) and arms (magenta and cyan) skeleton elements are displayed. The algorithm performed excessive errors.

Figure 2 Horizontal vs. Vertical occlusion. Left: two examples of horizontal occlusion. Green shaded regions show the bounding box of the person of interest. Right: two examples of vertical occlusion.

Figure 3 Left: ground truth vs estimated bounding box comparison. Right: horizontally occluded region and its edge representation. We check the curvature of the longest curve segment. The person corresponding to concave curvature is foreground and the person corresponding to convex curvature is in the background. For the background person we do not try to detect his occluded arm while pose detection.

First we adjust the horizontal lower boundary of a person using vertical occlusion (Figure 2). To detect the vertical occlusion we use the detected face position and define the vertical occlusion as if two detected faces horizontally overlap each other more than a certain threshold (25%) and their vertical distance is less than the person expected height then upper person is occluded by the lower one. If a person is vertically occluded by another person then we limit its lower horizontal boundary to the center of face of person below (Fig. 2). Second, we shrink the vertical boundaries of a person bounding box using the horizontally adjacent persons. If any person's initial vertically boundary overlap more than fifty percent with the face of horizontally adjacent person then this boundary will be limited by the center of that face (Fig. 2).

Figure 4 Results of Yong and Ramanan 2013 articulated pose detection algorithm on partially occluded persons. Since the algorithm is not able to automatically detect occluded body parts, therefore the algorithm forcefully tries to fit in the legs (red) and torso (yellow) and makes obvious mistakes.

Figure 5 After detecting the partially visible body parts of the three persons we apply the partial trained model consisting of head (green), upper torso (yellow) and arms (cyan and magenta) for pose detection. The partial model has performed quite well on the partially visible bodies and forcefully fitting of missing body parts is avoided.

After bounding box corrections we compared our estimated bounding boxes with the available ground truth and got very close match (Fig. 3). In person segmentation problem, we not only need to locate the person but also separate it from the other persons and the background. For this we need to identify that which person is at the front and which is at the back in the occluded region. We divide the occlusion issue into vertical and horizontal occlusions. First, vertical occlusion occurs when a person sits in front of other person and it is normal in spectator crowds. It means the person with lower head position will be in foreground. So we sort the persons using their vertical head position and mark the person as foreground in occluded region who has lower head position. Second, horizontal occlusion occurs due to the side by side appearance of persons. It is more challenging to mark a person as foreground or background in horizontally occluded region. To cope with this challenge we find edges in the occluded region and fit a curve in these edges. If the curve is concave with respect to the right person then this person is in foreground and other in background and vice versa (Fig. 3).

After having enough information about the person's location, occluded region, and boundary, the next step is to apply a state of the art pose detector to get the person pose. We use an approach similar to and train different body parts models (Fig. 5) including full body, upper body or head with arms which use the persons boundary and position information as prior. At time of detection, detection model is selected based on the size and shape of person's corrected bounding box for precise pose estimation. This model selection step helps to avoid the forceful detection of occluded parts. At the end, all detections of the pose detectors are reasoned holistically with respect to other persons positions. The proposed approach has demonstrated significant improvement over the full body detector when applied to dense crowds.

In future we will use the extracted pose information from consecutive frames of a video sequence of a crowd for the purpose of action or activity recognition. Pose information will enrich the optical flow based action or activity recognition algorithms offering them excessive information. Pose information is also required to localize the motion performed by different persons in dense crowds and thus action assignment will be improved.

Acknowledgment

This work was made possible by NPRP grant number NPRP 7-1711-1-312 from the Qatar National Research Fund (a member of Qatar Foundation). The statements made herein are solely the responsibility of the authors.