Religions: A Scholarly Journal - Volume 2015, Issue 1

نلاحظ اليوم أن الثقافة الدينية باتت تنظر إلى العمل من زاويتين: الأولى باعتباره نعمة، والثانية باعتباره نقمة؛ أو باعتباره أما هبة إلهية، في بعض الأحيان أو وسيلة تهذيب في أحيان أخرى. وهذه النظرة الدينية المزدوجة لظاهرة العمل، تبدو جلية في واقعنا المعاصر، وعلى وجه الخصوص من خلال وجود ظاهرتين داخل النظام الاقتصادي العالمي: ظاهرة الاستغلال من ناحية، وظاهرة الإبداع والنشاط المتنامي بوتيرة مطردة من ناحية أخرى. من المؤكد أن اهتمامات العمل طغت على جوانب أخرى في حياة الناس اليوم، لدرجة أن البعض يذهب إلى القول بأن العمل تحول في عصرنا إلى دين جديد، على أقل تقدير في مناطق واسعة من العالم خارج سيطرة النظام الدين. ورغم الفراغ الذي تركه انعدام الاهتمام بالجانب الروحي والتوافق على القيم الدينية، يلاحظ أن النشاط المهني، يكاد يملأ هذا الفراغ، ليعطي معنى للحياة من ناحية، وليربط الأشخاص بعضهم ببعض من خلال شبكة من المهام تقوم على التعاون المتبادل. وخير مثال لذلك هو ما نراه عبر العالم من العمل الإنساني الهائل المتسق والمعقد، الناتج عن الالتزام ولإبداع والطاقة، من خلال حركة دائمة وسريعة التطور. وبالرغم من أن التعلق بالعمل أصبح مرتبطا بنوع من الحماس يكاد يرقى إلى درجة العبادة، يفقد العمل دوره التقليدي، في بعض الأحيان، ليتحول إلى مصدر ظلم واستغلال. والحقيقة أن سبب هذا السلوك يعود إلى الثورة في وسائل الإنتاج مثل تبديل الآلات والتشغيل الآلي، مع إدخال المعلوماتية في كثير من مجلات المهنية، مما يسلب الطابع الإنسان من الكثير من المجالات المهنية بسبب الثورة المعلوماتية. وبالتالي في كثير من الأحيان أصبح دور العمل منحصرا في تلبية ضروريات الحياة ووسيلة لمجرد البقاء على قيد الحياة،منقطعة بذلك عن الاهتمامات الأساسية والأخلاقية، على خلاف مع القيم الأخلاقية والسعادة الروحية. وإذا تأملنا تاريخا الإنسان، نرى أن الاستثمار في العمل من منطلق ديني كان هو القاعدة. في الحضارات ما قبل عصر الحداثة، وتقديس العمل كانت السمة المشتركة، وهذا ما يظهر جليا، كذلك لدى الرجل المتدين العمل هو الفعل أو الإنتاج، وفي كلى الحالتين ينطوي العمل بصبغة من التقديس. ولذا كان لا بد أن ينفذ العمل "باسم الله"، بحيث لا يتم التغير فقط على المستوى الشكلي والرسمي، ولكن على المستوى النوعي والروحي أيضا. أضف إلى ذلك أنه عند ما يكتمل العمل روحيا، يمكن أن يتم التحول جوهريا، كما يتجلى ذلك بوضوح في حالة الترابط الوثيق، واسع النطاق، بين الفنون الروحانيات. ينطبق هذا على الأفراد والجماعات على حد سواء، مثل النقابات، والقبائل أو الطبقات الاجتماعية. كما يرتبط العمل بمفهوم الهوية، والناس الذين لا يعملون، أو نسوا كيف يعملون أو لا يهتموا بالعمل، سيفقدون كرامتهم ومعها هويتهم الحقيقية. ولا يعتبر العمل هنا مسألة مفخرة وطنية أو مجرد تراث رسمي، بل هي أحد القضايا المصيرية. القضايا الهامة للحفاظ على الثقافي والديني. وهذا ما يدلل على أن "جاندي" قد أدرك جيدا العلاقة الوثيقة بين الهوية الروحية للأمة ونوع عملها عندما اختار عجلة الغزل شعارا لحمله التي أطلقها لإحياء التراث الحضارة الهندية. وحتى حين ما يندرج العمل ضمن القيم الدينية، نادرا ما يعتبر في حد ذاته فعلا دينيا أن نتاجا دينيا. ذلك أن الأعمال الدينية تتمثل في الأساس في الطقوس و والصلوات والسلوكيات الأخلاقية. والسؤال الذي يطرح نفسه هو: كيف يمكن الربط بين العمل المهني والأعمال الدينية؟ والجواب يستدعي عدة ملاحظات: الملاحظة الأولى هي أن عمليتا الصلاة والتأمل يمكن اعتبرهما نوعا من العمل، وهما في كل الأديان، واجب جماعي، وكذلك دعوة للخصوص. ونجد هذا حتى في الأديان التي لا تقبل بالرهبانية، مثال ذلك "أهل الصفة" في صدر الإسلام، والذين كانوا انقطعوا للعبادة. لأن الإنسانية المتنوعة المشارب، تكون كذلك متنوعة في ميولها المهنية. والملاحظة الثانية هي أن ثمة فكرة خاطئة وغامضة تدعي وجود تعارض بين عملية التأمل والعمل. أما القرآن فهو يقرر في هذا المجال في الآية التالية: “لا تلهيهم تجارة ولا بيع عن ذكر الله”، وبالتالي يدحض وجهة النظر السطحية المعاصر، والتي تزعم انعدام توافق بين العبادة والعمل المهني، أن يحل كل منهما محل الآخر، أو يتساوى الطرفان. أما الملاحظة الثالثة هي أن الممارسات الدينية وما يتكون منها من الشعور الديني، يتناقض صراحة مع الغش المهني وسلوكيات الا أخلاقية. وفي هذا المعنى، يشكل الدين مدرسة التربية الأخلاقية، سواء في الجانب المهني أو في النواحي الأخرى للحياة. وفي المقابل غياب ارتباط وثيق أو إدماج بين الممارسات الدينية والأخلاقيات المهنية، ما هي إلا دلالة عن وجود فهم خاطئ عميق للممارسات الدينية أو في التعامل معها. وبالإضافة إلى هذه الاعتبارات الأساسية، يمكن القول أن الأخلاقيات المهنية الشاملة، لا محالة تعترف بضرورة منح العمل نوع من التقديس النسبي الغير المطلق. كما يعتبر العمل،من هذا المنظور، واحدا من أهم أبعاد حياتنا، ولكن هولا يزال مقيدا بالقيم الروحية، والمبادئ الأخلاقية العليا، التي تحدد نفوذ و حقوق ومتطلبات العمل. وتبقى هذه المبادئ هي الضامنة على أن يبقى العمل هو وسيلة للحياة وليس غاية لها.

يشغل الكاردينال أوناييكن حاليا منصب رئيس الأساقفة الكاثوليك في أبوجه بنيجيريا، وهو شخصية ساهمت وما زالت في الحوار المسيحي الإسلامي، وهو من الأصوات القليلة المدافعة عن جدوى الحوار وأهميته في دعم إرساء السلام وحل النزاعات. وفي هذا اللقاء الذي قام به فريق من المركز الدوحة الدولي لحوار الأديان، يقدم فيه رئيس الأساقفة بعضا من تأملاته حول "أخلاقيات العمل". الأديان التقليدية الإفريقية لا تختلف كثيرا عن المسيحية و الإسلام, ولذا يمكنا القول بأن الأديان التقليدية التي كنا ندين بها لم تكن وثنية ، كنا نعبد الله من خلالها، ومن هنا استطعنا أن نقرأ الكتاب المقدس بدون عناء. والدي كان مفتونا بسيرة السيد المسيح ومن هنا صدقه وآمن به، لأن المسيح لم يأتي بإله جديد. الكتاب المقدس رغم أنه لم يتحدث كثيرا عن المسيح إلا إنه حكا لنا عن المعجزات التي ظهرت على يديه، وهي الدالة على أفعال الله من حولنا، علما بأن المعجزات هي في الأصل خاصة لله. كما أنه نؤكد بوجوب إتباع المسيح في أقواله و أفعاله لأن أفعاله تجسيد لأقواله. يوجد في أفريقيا قساوسة وراهبات نذروا حياتهم للعمل من أجل لله باعتبارهم مسيحيين، في نظري يمكن اعتبار العمل الدنيوي أيضا عملا من أجل لله. ومما لاشك فيه هو أن الكسل صفة سلبية, وإذا لم يقم الجميع بالقيام بأعمالهم اليومية على أحسن وجه، اعتبر ذلك معصية لأوامر الله. يحتفل الناس في أفريقيا كثيرا بالأيام المقدسة، وفي نظري إذا انتهت العبادة، ينبغي للناس أن ينتشروا لأعمالهم الدنيوية و تجارتهم و معاشهم. في القرون الوسطى كان جميع الناس يشتغلون، ولكن وجدت في عصرنا ظاهرة جديدة وهي البطالة ومن الصعب السيطرة عليها. ومن منظور المسيحية العمل يهدف إلى عمارة الأرض باعتبار الإنسان خليفة لله، وهذا يعني أنه رسن هدف واضح لحياة الإنسان. نريد أن نحقق عملا يرضي ذواتنا. عند ما نفقد العمل، ينظر إلى الحياة بأنها غير عادلة. ويلقى ذلك الظرف مسؤولية كبرى على عاتق الدولة لتوجيه الناس ومساعدة ، من يرغب ويقدر على إيجاد العمل. وفي هذا الصدد يقول بولس بأن من لا يريد العمل ينبغي أن لا يأكل، وهذا المثل ينطبق على الكسول. ومرة سألني بعض الشباب عن حالة الشخص الذي له رغبة في العمل ولكن لا يستطيع الحصول عليه، ولا يجد ما يأكل، فهذا مأساوي جدا. تغيرت النظرة إلى العمل في عالمنا المعاصر، حيث لم يعد العمل يحمل تلك القيمة النبيلة التي ترفع من قدر صاحبها. فإذا أخذنا مثال الحرفيين الذين كانوا يجمعون بين الوظيفة والفن ليس له مكان أو فرصة في ساحة العمل اليوم كما أنه لم يعد لتخصصات الماضي وجود اليوم. لقد طرأ تغيرا جذري في مفهوم العمل اليوم، وأكثر من يعاني من هذه الحالة هم فئة الشباب. وإذا رجعنا إلى دور الدين فأنه لا يمكنه أن يوقف هذه العملية، أقصى ما يمكن للدين أن يقوم به هو أن ينصح ويوجه صناع القرار إلى يجاد بيئة مشجعة للعمل. الناس ليسوا عبارة عن آلات إنتاج ويحتاجون إلى تعامل تحفظ لهم كرامتهم، ومن المثير للاستغراب أن بعض الأعمال تعتبر أكرم، ,أرفع قدرا، من غيرها في هذه الأيام. أما دور الدين فهو تنبيه أرباب العمل إلى أن إرادة الله تكمن في إعطاء العمال حقوقهم كاملة. مهما بلغ مستوى الرقي في المجتمع، فإنه ما لم يستوفي الشباب حقهم في مجال العمل حتى الشعور بالرضي من ظروفهم ستصيبهم حالة من الإحباط ستدفعهم في كثير من الأحيان إلى طريق العنف. ينبغي أن يدرك الناس بأن السعادة تعتمد على قدرة معرفة المرء بنفسه، ويمكن أن تكون سعيدا مع امتلاك الحد الأدنى، مع المعرفة العميق لنفسك، وبالتالي لا يحتاج الناس إلى الكثير ليكونوا سعداء.

Religious cultures tend to understand work both as a blessing and as a curse; at times a divine gift, at times a chastising toil. Although work is first of all a distant human reflection of the Divine work of creation, it is also, in the Bible, a divine punishment for human disobedience: “By the sweat of your face you shall eat bread, till you return to the ground, for out of it you were taken;” (Genesis 3:19). This two-faced reality manifests as well in our contemporary age, one in which global economic exploitation is no less obvious than exponential creativity and activity. What is certain is that work concerns have probably never been as high on the human agenda as they are today. This is so much so that it has sometimes been claimed that work is indeed the new religion of our times, at least in the largely secularized sections of the world. In the absence of a clear focus on transcendence and a consensus on religious values, professional activity has tended to fill a vacuum in giving meaning to one's life, as well as in connecting one to others in a network of collaborative tasks. The tremendous, sometimes indeed vertiginous, commitment, ingenuity and energy that come into play in the ever increasingly complex web of human work throughout the globe, bear witness to this. Notwithstanding this transfer of quasi-religious fervor onto professional endeavors, there is a sense in which much of contemporary work has lost its immediate intelligibility, when it has not been turned into a source of inequity and exploitation. This is no doubt a result of the mechanization, automatization and, in a sense, depersonalization and informatization of many professional endeavors in the age of globalization. Thus, work may often be equated with a mere economic imperative of survival disconnected from vital and ethical concerns, or even a tyrannical necessity squarely at odds with moral values and spiritual well-being. In one way or another, the investment of work with religious meaning has been, throughout human history, the rule rather than the exception. In all pre-modern civilizations the sacralization of work was a common place phenomenon. For homo religiosus, work is action or production, doing or making, and it involves, in both cases, a sort of consecration; it has to be performed "in the name of God," not only formally and perfunctorily, but qualitatively and spiritually. Furthermore, when spiritually integrated, it entails a transformation of one's being, as was amply demonstrated by the deep and widespread connection between crafts and spirituality. This held true for individuals as well as for groups, like guilds, tribes or castes. Work is associated with identity, and a people who does not work, or does not know how to work anymore, or does not bring to work a sense of care, cannot but lose its dignity, and ultimately its true identity. This is not a matter of national pride or mere formal heritage, but one of cultural and indeed religious survival. Gandhi was quite aware of this profound connection between the spiritual identity of a nation and the quality of its work, when he chose the spinning wheel as a symbol of his campaign of cultural restoration. Even though work may be integrated within religious values, it is rarely considered in and of itself a religious act or a religious production. Religious action lies primarily in rites, prayers and moral behaviour. How do those relate to work? First prayer and meditation is in a sense a type of "work," since it is in all religions not only an obligation for all, but also a special vocation for some. Even those traditions which do not accept monasticism recognize this, as testified by the status of the ahlal-suffa in early Islam. Those were members of the early Muslim community who spent most of their time in devotional practices. This demonstrates that humanity is diverse, and this diversity manifests in the plurality of vocations (vocatio means “calling” in latin). The multiplicity of professional callings, which has been a result of social and family contexts or individual qualifications and interests, is very broad, from farming to the crafts, from contemplative life to social service, from military and administrative functions to teaching and healing. Secondly, there is something factitious and suspect about the often alleged opposition between contemplation and action. The Quran states that there are “men whom neither trade nor sale diverts them from the remembrance of God" (24:37), thereby rejecting the superficial contemporary view that prayer would be incompatible with work, or that the latter should substitute for the former, or be "counted" as it. Thirdly, the quality of religious practices, and the religious consciousness they foster or express, is evidently incompatible with professional dishonesty and an unethical way of life. Religion is, in that sense, a school of moral education that informs professional activity as well as other domains of life. By contrast, a lack of consistent connection and integration between religious practice and professional ethics cannot but be the sign of a gravely flawed understanding or treatment of the former. Beyond such foundational considerations, any comprehensive professional ethics would recognize both that work has something "consecrating" about it, and that it is not an absolute. Work ethics takes work as seriously as it deserves to be, as one of the most significant dimensions of our life, but it still subordinates it to higher spiritual and moral principles and values, thereby affirming both its power of self-realization and the limits of its rights and demands. It ensures that work feeds the soul, but does not feed on it. Patrick Laude

In his recent interview conducted by Adeel Khan, a DICID’s senior researcher and managing editor of Religions/Adyan, Cardinal Onaiyekan of Abuja spoke about the notion of work from his Christian perspective. The interview may be divided into two parts as it started with the reflection of what is or what can be considered as the work of God on earth, and later shifted to the understanding of work or rather work ethics in general terms where several issues related to the current un/employment problems were discussed. Being an Archbishop from Nigeria, the Cardinal presented his views not only from Christian perspective but also from an African observer and from his own personal experience with regards to the main theme of the interview.

Perceptions on of work and its relation to human life have occupied man for centuries and discussions about the concept of work among different traditions and cultures appear to be under influence of a certain ideology or particular religion. In this article, Professor Ali has analyzed the understanding of work ethics based on the Islamic perspective. However, as an introduction to this theme, he firstly elaborated the concept of work ethics in a historical context, drawing from Greek civilization up to our time. The idea of work ethics and its understanding among the key makers of Greco-Roman and later Judeo-Christian civilizations up to the industrial revolution and technological age of our times went through the profound changes. In contrast to the Islamic perspective of work ethics, the author claims that in the Western civilization the essential purpose of work despite all drastic comprehension of this notion remains of profitable nature. In Islam on the other hand, the question of work ethics is closely connected to establishing equilibrium between physical and spiritual well being of an individual and a society. The author discussed the fundamental pillars of work ethics in Islam, and these are: effort, competition, transparency, and morally responsible conduct. He also explained several dimensions of ethics concerning work in Islam such as spiritual, social, philosophical, economic and others, concluding his paper by Islamic work ethics statements pertaining to economic welfare of Muslim community.

The focus of this paper is on understanding the nature of Christian (religious) ethics, giving special consideration of implications for ethical work. Some of the recent issues within the American workforce in regards to religion will be discussed, including three specific barriers for religious people who desire to live out their faith openly in the workplace. The paper will argue that the Christian ethic, including workplace ethics, needs to be understood as primarily a commitment to preserving and forming a Christian identity.

This paper revisits the classical Sufi debate over the comparative superiority of practicing absolute reliance on God (tawakkul) against working to earn a living: is it preferable to work to earn a living or to simply trust in God for one’s daily sustenance? By going over the different sources of the Qūt al-qulūb of Abū Ṭālib al-Makkī (d.386 A.H./996 C.E.), this paper will provide a summary sketch of its treatment of this debate in the formative period of Sufism, one that involved not only the early Sufis, but also scholars of law and tradition who were concerned with understanding the ideal life advocated by the Sharīʿa.

Most traditional or native societies based on various sources have constructed particular systems dealing with every aspect of human life. Besides social, religio-cultural, economic and governing systems, they created also what is academically known today as work ethics. In this article, the authors have explored one of such systems developed by the traditional people of Ghana, namely, Akan. As the authors clearly pointed out, there are numerous foundations based upon which work ethics among Akan people are worked out. Here, it is not only their religious and cultural believes that played very important role, but also their personal attained knowledge and experiences over the ages as well as ecological environment that naturally supports the development of given ethical approaches to work that in this respects refers predominantly to agricultural and fishing industries or more precisely, terrestrial and oceanic spaces of work. The study also highlights an entire cosmography of Akan as well as their worldview regarding the Supreme Being and the rest of creation seen in hierarchical order that makes a web of interconnected universe. The proper knowledge of this hierarchy of beings on the one hand and the natural world on the other hand results in harmony within different types of beings as it provides the best economical results for the working people.

In the Christian religious tradition, a great deal of study is devoted to the notion of human work and its importance to the world as such. In presenting some general ideas on this topic based almost exclusively on Christian perspective, Rev. Dr. Karekatt has argued that religion throughout the ages has played a decisive role not only in the understanding of human being and his/her surroundings but also in providing them with means and methods of harnessing human labor. With the arrival of modern science and technology however, the Church was faced with immense challenges in order to redefine work ethics and provide the meaning of it that would fit the new and ever increasing development of labor philosophy within modern and secular worldview. This and other questions such as work in the Christian perspective, human being as creation in the image of God and ordained to live in society, and finally work or labor as a fundamental dimension of human existence have been discussed in the present article.

From the beginning of Islam, the question of one’s private or public behavior has been closely related to one’s faith or spiritual state. Based on certain Qur’anic references to human responsibility such as divine vicegerency on earth and the Prophetic noble example of human excellence Muslim scholars have developed a special domain of study devoted to what is known as mu’amalat or transactions. The notion of work ethics within this field of study occupies one of the major themes as it is well illustrated in the present article by (Prof.) Khalfaoui. The author has presented an Islamic perspective on business and its development within Islamic culture from the early period of Islam to later times. The first part of the article deals with the Qur’anic and Sunnatic conceptions of business and its institution within an Islamic context. The second part delves further into legal treatment of work developed by Muslim Jurists and other scholars. Finally in a brief conclusion of the study the author fairly related the religious implication of work ethics to the subject of business within the traditional Islamic perspective.

This paper explores Islamic work ethics through a case study of the Tijaniyya Sufi order in sub-Saharan Africa. Whereas the normative injunctions of Islamic ethics with regard to work provide little indication as to how work is imbued with religious meaning, approaching the topic empirically allows us to get a clearer sense of the religious significance and spiritual dimension of work. The key concept in the Sufi context analyzed in this paper is khidma, literally “service.” Drawing on fieldwork among Tijani communities in Senegal and Sudan, the article expounds the ideas related to work as well as the ways in which these ideas are being put into practice. By committing one’s life to the service of the shaykh and the community, the followers believe to attain success in this world and bliss in the Hereafter.

Religion continues to play an important role in our contemporary world. In global affairs and politics, religion plays a major part in issues dealing with violence, peace, justice, and reconciliation. Such a significant phenomenon requires the right methodology for understanding its various dimensions, processes, and structures. The study of religion truly has an enduring dimension. The study of religion is intellectually stimulating because it provides a clue to the mystery of the other. It is one of the disciplines that ponders the boundary questions of life and death and of love and violence that constitute an integral part of the human condition. The work of Jonathan Z. Smith provides pioneering insights into the academic study of religion. His seminal thoughts and reflections on religious pluralism, religious studies, teaching, and transcendence provide a sound theoretical framework for dealing with these issues. This book is divided into thirteen chapters with a concluding essay by Christopher I. Lehrich. The chapters are lucidly written with copious information about teaching, scholarship, and participation in the professional guild. Pedagogical insights about the college classroom, advice about college and graduate education are the focus of the introduction, chapters one, four, five, nine, and ten. To teachers, Smith offered these words of wisdom: “don’t start at the beginning, start rather at the end… I always begin by trying to imagine a final examination. Not so much the particulars I would want the students to know, but the issues I want them to confront” (p.3). This advice serves as the road map for navigating themes and issues in religious studies. The classroom becomes a living laboratory for exploring complex issues and subjects dealing with the transcendence and its implications for self and society. Smith counsels the instructor to create a context that is liberating rather than paralyzing. In chapters five, six, seven, eight, twelve, and thirteen Smith offered relevant information about new horizons in the study of religion. All these chapters add new dimensions to the open-ended conversations about teaching and studying religion. In these chapters, Smith addresses topics such as the dynamic relationship between religious studies and theology, the prospects of religious studies, and new frontiers in liberal arts education. On the future of liberal learning, Smith noted, “Let me be blunt. The situation we find ourselves in and which we look forward to is new, and it is promising” (p.137). These are comforting words from a man of remarkable stature and experience. Events and stories in our contemporary world do require disciplines that can provide objective and critical analysis. The study of religion is fraught with much misconception and misinformation, hence the need to clarify some of the intellectual conundrums surrounding this enduring endeavor. Smith provides a compelling treatise that uncovers the caveats and challenges associated with the task of understanding religion and its concomitant implications for public policy and enlightenment. With the need to separate the tree from the forest; Smith delves into issues dealing with pedagogy, curriculum development, public engagement, and professional development. By using personal anecdotes, he allows readers to have a good appreciation of the joys and travails of a teacher-scholar of religion. For more than three decades, Jonathan Z. Smith has been one of the dominant voices in the academic study of religion. His lectures and writings provide a sound methodological framework for the role of religion in matters of education and public policy. They also offer rich insights into the complex web of religionswissenschaft. For Smith, education should not be treated with benign neglect; rather, it is a phenomenon that should influence public policies and actions. Some of the fundamental issues that should be bore in mind remain: What are the differences between college and high school? What is the correct role of an introductory course? What functions should a department serve in undergraduate and graduate education? How should a major in religion be conceived? What are roles of academic guilds in public discourse on education and religion? What are the connections between scholarship and teaching? How do the two influence each other? These questions remain germane to the academic study of religion in contemporary times. Smith is concerned about the approach to the study of religion that is educational and comparative in nature. This must be rigorous, comparative, interdisciplinary, and objective. To teach about religion is an educational exercise that strives to introduce students to the rich world of religious traditions and their complex histories, mythologies, and philosophies. It is an intellectual journey that is full of many surprises and discoveries. Smith has done a yeoman’s job in identifying the best strategies and practices for being a teacher-scholar of religion. His writing and erudition offer profound insights that can be considered important in the field of religious studies. His advice: “there is nothing that must be taught, there is nothing that cannot be left out” still rings true in the humanities today. This is a sublime reminder for integration and selectivity in course preparation and delivery. These are key factors in what Smith defined as “decisions and operations” in the classroom context.