Qatar Foundation Annual Research Forum Volume 2013 Issue 1

Growing concern about anthropogenic influence on the climate system due to emissions of greenhouses gases into the atmosphere causes governments everywhere around the world to adopt fossil fuel use reduction policies. However, to test if various government-launched measures and incentives really are effective, the fossil fuel based CO2 emissions into the atmosphere should be independently verified. To date, independent verification schemes are still far from common and both national policy and commerical carbon trading relies instead on self-reported emissions, and emission reductions. Such reports are based on inventories: summation of the emissions of all (known!) sources. True independent verification, however, should be based on atmospheric observations and supporting atmospheric transport models such that the sum of reported emissions matches the highly accurately measured concentrations in the atmosphere. The atmosphere is our ultimate record of the real GHG emissions: it neither misreports nor misdetects any GHG emissions. So far, however, only prototypes of such verification schemes are reported in the literature, the most noteworthy example being the "Megacities Carbon" initiative (Duren and Miller, 2011). In our group in Groningen, the Netherlands, we have recently demonstrated the first atmospheric observation based verification of greenhouse gas emissions for the Netherlands (Meesters et al., 2012, van der Laan et al., 2010, 2009). The methodology we used was based on the continuous observations of greenhouse gas concentrations at our atmospheric monitoring tower Lutjewad, in the north of the Netherlands. Additionally, in the case for CO2, we used radiocarbon (14C) and carbon monoxide (CO) observations, which enabled us to discriminate fossil fuel based CO2 from natural sources (and sinks) of CO2. Key to the verification scheme, however, was the way in which we could lead back observed concentrations to fluxes from the land to the atmosphere. We used the tracer Rn for this. Rn is a radio-active, but inert gas that emanates from soils at a more or less constant rate. Using this rate, and monitoring the Rn concentration, enabled use to translate greenhouse gas concentrations back into surface fluxes. To achieve this, we also made use of an atmospheric transport model, with which we could both calibrate our results, and test them for robustness. Our efforts produced total emissions (in a 3-year average) for the Netherlands for CH4, N2O and fossil fuel derived CO2 with a combined uncertainty of about 25% Improving the accuracy of such an effort is certainly possible. New, accurate and low-maintenance measurement instruments facilitate the efficient implementation of monitoring stations. Better, higher resolution atmospheric modelling is available, too. Using such advanced tools would make the independent verification to a level of ±10% possible on a yearly basis. Qatar, and especially the Doha agglomeration, would form a perfect testbed for such an excercise. The city, with its strong emissions is relatively isolated, and biospheric sources and sinks, which are much larger than the anthropogenic sources almost everywhere else in the world, are very small in Qatar, thanks to the barren desert.

The case for CO2-based fuels Coal and natural gas are still the main fuels for electricity generation. Traditional power plants have many advantages: they are very reliable and can relatively easily be ramped up and down to follow the electricity demand. However, their one disadvantage, their huge CO2 emission, is so big that they are replaced by alternatives. These alternative electricity generation sources, like solar and wind power, do not emit CO2. However, they are intermittent and cannot be used to follow the electricity demand. With the growth of renewable electricity production, the demand for storage of renewable electricity also increase. Oil-based transportation fuels also have many advantages: they can be stored and transported easily and they can be used to propel any transportation device, from mopeds to ocean liners and from passenger cars to airplanes. However, their high CO2 emission makes an alternative necessary. In many cases electric transport is an excellent alternative, but for long-distance heavy transport, shipping and aviation, hydrocarbon-based fuels will still be in demand. All these pressing problems can in principle be solved by using CO2 and renewable electricity to produce hydrocarbon-based transportation fuels. Costs of CO2-based fuels An inventory of CO2 utilization options shows that commercial options do exist and are ready to be deployed at commercial large scale. The major unit operations in the chain from renewable power and CO2 to fuels are PV-panels, CSP-plants, wind turbines, water electrolysis, CO2 capture, syngas conditioning, and Fischer-Tropsch synthesis (see Figure below). Source: Haije & Geerlings dx.doi.org/10.1021/es203160k. Environ. Sci. Technol, 2011 In this paper we present results of a study in which we have compared the costs of the production of certain CO2 based fuels (hydrogen, methanol, methane, and petrol) with the current market prices of the fossil counterparts of these fuels. As expected, the costs of the CO2-based fuels is in general higher, but the gap seems bridgeable. For example, for producing methanol from CO2 from renewable electricity costs 800 to 1500 USD per ton, while methanol from natural gas costs around 500 USD per ton. A major factor determining the costs, are the investments in electrolyzers to convert the renewable power into hydrogen. Especially, at low availabilities of renewable power, the electrolyzer costs drives up the costs of the CO2-based fuels. Development needs Adaptation of existing technology or development of novel technology is necessary to reduce costs and to cope with the intermittent nature of renewables (e.g., rapid ramp-up and ramp-down). The development of improved electrolyzers at lower costs and high efficiency is important. ECN is developing technology for the conversion of CO2 and hydrogen (a separation-enhanced reversed water-gas-shift process), that is especially suited for the CO2-based fuel applications. Conclusion The production of CO2-based fuels using commercially available technologies is possible. These fuels not only re-cycle CO2, but also store renewable electricity and replace fossil-based transportation fuels. The costs are still higher than fossil-based fuels, but by developing novel technologies, this gap can be reduced.

Nematodes cause billions of dollars of damage each year to agricultural crops worldwide. Nematicides are costly and environmentally detrimental. Crop rotation does not eliminate nematodes, but merely decreases crop damage. For successful engineering of transgenic plants for nematodes resistance, it is important to regulate plant resistance through promoters that over-express resistance genes or produce RNAi in the correct cells at the proper time. Data from our previous microarray experiments showed a number of genes that are responsive and activated at feeding site upon nematode infection after 3, 6 and 9 days. In this investigation, we identified and isolated seven different promoter regions, supposedly harboring different regulatory elements upstream to seven responsive genes that are highly expressed in the nematode feeding site. The upstream promoter regions were cloned, sequenced and tested in our newly developed expression vectors series, pJan25S (NCBI: KC416200), pJan25T (NCBI: KC416201) and pJan25X (NCBI: KC416202), that are an enhancements of pGWB533 for pro- moter testing.. Accumulation of the products of reporter genes encoding green fluorescent protein and b-glucuronidase (GUS) was monitored after transformation of onion cells using biolistics gene transfer. These promoter constructs were also prepared for transformation in Arabidopsis and soybean. These promoters will provide scientists with useful regulators for expressing genes and gene products that may inhibit the life cycle of the nematode at nematode feeding site. The same approach can be used for enhancing resistance of Qatari important plants against different pathogen.

The spatial distribution of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)was investigated in sediments from 16 sites from the east coast of the Arabian Gulf of Qatar. Sixteen US-EPA priority PAHs and their alkylated homolog were determined. The highest PAHs concentrations were found in sediments inside fishing Harbors as well as at offshore locations close to an oil fields. Most inshore coastal locations showed low PAHs concentrations (95.4- 27.88 ng.g-1). Concentrations of PAHs in Qatar coastal sediments indicated that the area has low contaminate concentrations (<100 ng/g-1) except inside the fishing Harbor and offshore where moderate levels of pollution were detected (100=SPAHs=1000 ng.g-1). The spatial distribution of the concentrations of 16 parent PAHs and their alkyl homologs are presented and the possible sources of the PAHs have been elucidated using diagnostic ratios. Contaminant patterns and diagnostic ratios indicated that the PAHs were mainly from petrogenic sources, with higher contributions of pyrogenic PAHs near industrialized and urban areas.

Red palm weevil-RPW (Rhynchophorus ferrugienus Olive, Coleoptera, Curculionidae) was first observed in India in 1917 as a serious pest on date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.). It was introduced in Arabian Gulf countries in the mid-1980s and now considered to be one of the most destructive insects on date palm. The larvae are responsible for damaging and they cause the death of palm tree. There is no data available about the loss caused by this insect. This study showed the strategies used to control invasive species of RPW. These strategies include the following methods: (1) Declare the infested area as a quarantine or isolated area prohibiting the movement of plants, persons, animals or others. (2) Eradicate invasive species as soon as it is discovered quickly and population levels remain low. (3) Mechanical control involves using machinery or fire to remove the insect. (4) Keeping potentially damaging out in the first place where it was observed. (5) Biological control involves introducing a predator or parasite in an attempt to lower the population dynamic. (6) Chemical control involves using chemical pesticides to kill all the stages. (7) The newest technology for managing invaders species of RPW is using pheromone traps.

Human biomonitoring (HBM) is an emerging risk assessment tool that can be used to decipher the exposure and possible health effects of environmental chemicals. This report presents the results of a pilot HBM study involving 239 farmers in Qatar exposed to chemical fertilizers and pesticides as well as other environmental contaminants associated with the rapidly growing energy industry in the country. This cross-sectional study is based on urine as a biomarker and the objectives are to a) introduce HBM as a research tool in Qatar, b) quantify levels of trace elements and organic contaminants in urine from farmers and c) determine risks associated with the exposure to these contaminants using a detailed exposure questionnaire and biomarker results. This presentation focuses on results of 14 elements (V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, As, Se, Mo, Cd, Ba, Pb and U) in urine samples; results of the organic contaminants are being presented separately. The data set associated with this study is the first of its kind in Qatar. All results were within normal global ranges for farmers with the exception of Mo (elevated) and Fe, Cu and Co (depressed levels). The mean and range of these four elements are: Mo (108 µg/L, 9.59 - 737 µg/L), Fe (54.1 µg/L, 2.68 - 4071 µg/L), Cu (14.6 µg/L, 2.82 - 111 µg/L) and Co (0.505, <0.016 - 3.95 µg/L). Mo is a common constituent of oil and gas processes and this study suggests that it can be used as a biomarker of the energy industry in Qatar. The significance of the low levels of Cu, Co and Fe in terms of potential metabolic or dietary deficiencies is being investigated. This pilot study can serve as a model for future population scale human biomonitoring within the country and region.

Improved productivity requires informed decisions on a number of issues including crop, water, soil and financial risk management. In this paper, we use some case-study examples to illustrate how crop simulation models can be used to analyze the threats and opportunities arising from climate variability, climate change, and market variation for a focus crop at selected locations. We then demonstrate how this analysis can be coupled with site-specific soil information to inform soil and crop management strategies so that crop yield potential can be realised. Two sites in eastern Australia, Dalby (27 degrees S) and Corowa (36 degrees S) were used as a case study to analyse wheat growing conditions at two contrasting locations. Average annual rainfall ranged from 540 mm in Corowa to 675 mm in Dalby, with rainfall summer dominant in the north and winter (growing season) dominant in the south. Simulated crop growth parameters were assessed using APSIM (Agricultural Production Systems Simulator) and the data set was split into two time periods (1957-1983 and 1984-2011) to allow comparison. Dalby in the north showed a shift to decreasing simulated grain yield in the later period. For example the median grain yield at Dalby was reduced from 4000 kg/ha to a little over 3000 kg/ha. The decreased yield probabilities were accompanied by increased water stress during critical growth stages at Dalby. APSIM simulations highlight the climate change/ variability at Dalby with current 80 percentile yield of about 4000 kg/ha whereas at Corowa, there is no evidence of climate change/ variability and the 80 percentile yield is about 6000 kg/ha. The soil at the Dalby location is a Vertisol, while that at Corowa is a Solonetz. We used the paper-based DSS (Decision-Support Systems) called SCAMP (Soil Constraints and Management Package). Management strategies for ameliorating production constraints are identified, including the use of amendments such as gypsum and soil analyses to give fertiliser recommendations. Fertiliser management (fertilizer rate, timing and placement) can then be optimised using the CD-based DSS SafeGauge for Nutrients to maximise nutrient use efficiency and to minimise the environmental risk associated with off-site nutrient movement. Climate variability and economic return considerations indicate Corowa is the better choice for long term food security and economic returns than Dalby. SCAMP and SafeGauge for Nutrients indicate that different soil management practices would be needed at the two sites to realise yield potential. This case study thus demonstrates the principles of our new research project, funded by the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) through its National Research Priority Program, in that the climate of a site of interest is analysed using a crop growth model to firstly indicate if the crop can grow there, what would be the likely yield, and what would be the likely effects of climate change on yield potential. Economics then dictate if the yield is high enough and stable enough to warrant development. SCAMP and other relevant models are then used to identify soil constraints that will need to be mitigated to maintain productivity.

The three dimensional hydrodynamic pollutant transport model IDOR3D was used to simulate the nearshore current structure and pollutant dispersion from various sources. These sources can be municipal or industrial discharges and if are not properly designed will eventually cause environmental problems in the coastal areas. The inflows from sewage treatment plants and creeks affect the current structure within a small distance from the source. Their influence was studied in a high resolution of 100 m model in map sections E1 to E4 (Fig. 1). For the circulation of the northern coasts of Crete were the major urban centers are located, a grid size of 2 km was used. Local meteorological stations provided the wind speed and direction. The bathymetric files and coastlines were obtained from hydrographic digital files and the Digital Bathymetric Model (DBM) produced the gridded data obtained via GIS. Additional information from the Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of Crete with the aid of GIS technology can provide information of point sources discharging at the exit of watersheds in the near shores of the island. Further watershed analysis (hydrological/hydraulic/ pollutant concentration analysis) for rain events provides the pollutographs of ephemeral creeks discharging to the coastal areas that are used as input to IDOR3D. By employing different receiving water conditions (isothermal and stratified) and pollutant source conditions, simulations were performed in the areas E3 to E4 of Fig. 1. The bay in map section E4 was used to simulate the fate of a pollutant discharged over a four-hour period from an ephemeral creek under sea isothermal conditions and a 5m/s NW wind. The environmental impact on the nearshore area and mitigation measures are discussed. The bay in the map region E3 was used to examine the behavior of a contaminant discharged continuously into the bay from a submerged outfall source at two different locations (a) at 10m deep, positioned 250m offshore and (b) at 27 m depth positioned 2 km offshore, with the purpose to analyze the movement of the contaminant with respect to the island and the relative impact to nearshore areas. Concentration time series for a continuous conservative pollutant released with a concentration of 1000ppm into Chania bay under sea isothermal conditions and a 5m/s NW wind for the case (b), are shown in Fig. 2. In the case (a) the contaminant will dispersed between the island and the mainland shallow passage which will potentially cause environmental problems in a highly touristic area. The dilution is less under stratified conditions due to the buoyant forces of the pollutant generated by temperature and density differences, which reduces the amount of mixing due to the contaminant moving quickly to the surface. Complete results from all the cases will be presented in the conference.

A module for Digital Elevation Model (DEM) extraction from Very High Resolution (VHR) satellite stereo-pair imagery is developed and used for a flood plain mapping applications at an ungauged basin. A procedure for parallel processing of cascading image tiles is used for handling the large datasets requirements of VHR satellite imagery. The Scale-Invariant Feature Transform (SIFT) algorithm is used to detect potentially homogeneous features in the members of the stereo-pair. The resulting feature pairs are filtered using the RANdom SAmple Consensus (RANSAC) algorithm by using a variable distance threshold. Finally, homogeneous pairs are converted to point cloud ground coordinates for DEM generation. A 0.5 m × 0.5 m Geoeye-1 stereo-pair acquired over an area of 25 km2 in the island of Crete, Greece is used as input for the module. The resulting 1.5 m × 1.5 m DEM has superior detail over previously developed 2 m and 5 m DEMs that are used as reference, and yields a Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) of about 1 m compared to ground truth measurements. 1D and 2D hydraulic models are used to simulate the rainfall-runoff characteristics and the flood wave kinematics, of the flash flood event of October 17th, 2006 that occurred in Almirida basin, by using the 1.5 m VHR-DEM as an input. Results show that the hydraulic simulation based on the generated VHR-DEM, calibrated and validated via field data, produces an accurate extent and water level of the flooded area, proving that Remote Sensing stereo reconstruction is a promising alternative to the traditional survey methods in flood mapping applications.

Objective: This paper describes a new pyrolysis instrument (LIPS: "Laser Induced Pyrolysis System") performing high resolution (centimetric or less) logs of organic carbon on ancient sediment cores . Stakes: the usual methods for determining the quantity of carbon in sediment samples (Rock-Eval, Leco, analysis of thin sections, etc.) are quite expensive, provide low resolution results (typically: one sample every 30cm to 2m) and are time and sample consuming. The processing of geophysical well logs provides low-resolution logs (about 30-50 cm). The characterization of organic carbon on cores needs high resolution, because its abundance may show huge variations at the millimetre or centimetre scale. One of the parameters driving the organic carbon quantity in ancient sediment is the climate. Principle: The LIPS performs automatic core analysis of organic carbon. The principle of the instrument consists in the pyrolysis of organic carbon using a beam of an infrared radiation emitted by power laser diodes focused on a small area of core (up to 20 MW/m2). Different power ranges can be used to adapt the instrument to the material analyzed. The organic vapors, oxidized compounds, micro- and nano-particles emitted during the very short impact (typically, 1-2 seconds) can be detected by various detectors (Photo ionization Detector, Flame Ionization Detector, Mass Spectrometer, Gas Analyzer, etc.) allowing high resolution logs of organic carbon. One hundred data points on a 1 meter core can be acquired in less than one hour. In order to obtain logs of organic carbon the method requires a calibration on a few points using, for instance, Rock-Eval or Organic Carbon Analyser on a limited number of samples. This new instrument consists in 4 main parts: 1/Bench for core examination and for acquiring the X,Y,Z coordinates of the laser impact on the core surface, 2/Core Box Storage Unit (CBSU), allowing to store up to 30 core boxes, 3/Core Box Sampler, used to carry the core boxes from CBSU to Acquisition Unit and vice-versa, 4/Acquisition Unit, including laser gun, detector(s), mechanism for moving the laser head and device for extracting organic vapors. Results: Initially developed for unconventional resources and tarmat in reservoirs, the LIPS is successfully applied for palaeoclimate recording.